On October 2011, the Pacific island nation of Tuvalu declared a national state of emergency.   The emergency is that the country’s fresh water sources are running out and others are unfit for consumption.  Some areas of the island were projected to completely run out of potable, fresh water within two days of the declaration.  The conditions that led to the state of emergency are related to the longer term climate changes, but also to seasonal shifts.  A seasonal, La Niña weather pattern has been causing drought in Tuvalu.  Below-average rainfall has been experienced since June or at least and is projected to continue into December.  Most of the country’s fresh water supply comes from collected rainwater.  Another source of freshwater lies under the ground.  Yet, this source is limited.  Tuvalu is a series of low-lying coral atolls.  The geology of coral atolls does not support deep groundwater sources.  Further, the shallow groundwater that is found on these islands is being compromised by rising sea levels as salt water infiltrates the groundwater supply.  A reporting of animals deaths leads Tuvaluan Red Cross officials to question the safety of the groundwater supply for consumption.  Considering the nature of groundwater recharge, and most acute in Tuvalu, the lack of rainfall is accelerating the infiltration of seawater into subterranean water features.  The impacts of water shortages are felt in the islands’ traditional subsistence agriculture activities as well as water rationing affecting basic water services.  Tuvalu’s neighbor and New Zealand territory, Tokelau followed up soon after with its own state of emergency declaration.

The relief is coming from international organizations like the Red Cross as well as from the government of New Zealand.  The people of Tuvalu and Tokelau are being aided with water collection supplies, desalinization units and plenty of bottled water.  The larger affects are still yet to come.  In particular, questions about the long-term settlement of many low-lying Pacific islands have implications for nationhood, cultural traditions, economic rights, and logistics of mass migration.

People generally did the wrong thing during the quake – many ran outside, even though FEMA recommends that people who are inside a building stay where they are , drop, take cover, and stay away from windows and other glass (http://www.fema.gov/hazard/earthquake/eq_during.shtm). Even the US Geological Survey office in Reston, Virginia was evacuated!

On the West Coast, where I happened to be during the quake (in Seattle), people in general (and news anchors in particular) took great pleasure in comparing the Virginia quake to others of similar magnitude that happen much more frequently in the seismically active Northwest. Lots of ribbing and mocking – mostly good natured – took place in the days that followed the quake.

East Coast earthquakes are much less common than West Coast earthquakes, because the eastern edge of the United States is what is called a passive continental margin. It is the edge of a continent (North America), but it is not the edge of a plate, and the edges of plates are where most seismic activity tends to occur. The edge of the plate on which the North American continent is riding is in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, at the Mid-Atlantic Rift. That is where the North American Plate is moving apart from the Eurasian Plate (and, further to the south, the African Plate); earthquakes (and volcanic activity, as well) do indeed occur along that rift boundary.

Actually, East Coast earthquakes happen all the time; they’re just usually not this powerful. The August 23 quake was the strongest ever measured in Virginia. The causes of many of these intraplate earthquakes are not thoroughly understood. Some involve the activation of old, deep-seated faults. The area in which this particular quake occurred, the Central Virginia Seismic Zone, had experienced seismic activity before, but not along known, measured faults. The largest known historic earthquake in this area was a bit father to the west, in 1875, and was likely a bit less powerful than the 2011 quake. 

One geophysicist explained the cause of intraplate earthquakes like this: Imagine a plate the size of North America that is being jostled around on all sides by interactions with other plates. Obviously most of the earthquake activity will take place around the edges, but you’re also bound to be building up some stresses in the middle of the plate, too, which will eventually cause earthquakes to occur in the middle of the plate.

The details of the 2011 and historic quakes in the Central Virginia Seismic Zone can be found at the USGS Earthquake Hazards website (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/) . This is a truly rich resource that you should check out, if you haven’t already.

Of real concern is the lack of earthquake preparedness in the East. The general panic and uncertainty about what to do highlights this lack of preparedness. Another aspect is the general state of earthquake resistance of buildings in the East. Many older buildings are actually better suited to survive earthquake shaking than modern high-rises, which – unless specifically engineered to be earthquake-resistant, as they are typically now on the West Coast – are more likely to be rigid and subject to failure during seismic shaking. An interesting site with much information about cutting-edge research on earthquake engineering, damage assessment, and architecture is the Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (http://www.curee.org/).

An additional educational resource that is worth checking out is Teachable Moments, provided by the University of Portland and IRIS Education and Outreach (IRIS is Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology). You can find a Teachable Moment about the August 23 Virginia earthquake at http://www.iris.edu/hq/retm, and you can sign up to be on the Teachable Moments list-serv at the IRIS website (http://www.iris.edu/hq/programs/education_and_outreach/).

 Barbara Murck

Writing for the Boston Globe, Carly Gelsinger describes Robert Benson’s lifelong commitment to the songbirds. A retiree living south of Boston in the town of Stoughton, he has been enamored of bluebirds since he was a child, and was delighted when their recovery began in the 1970s. Since then, he has done whatever he can to improve their chances for survival. Finding areas with generally supportive habitat, his main focus has been to design, build, and maintain nesting boxes that provide safety for the birds.

The natural range of Eastern Bluebirds is the entire eastern portion of North America, yet another example of a pattern associated with the well-known 100th meridian phenomenon. It entered decline throughout that region for a variety of reasons, the most important of which was pesticides, particularly the chlorinated hydrocarbons that were the subject of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring.  Hampering the recovery has been competition for habitat with such introduced species as sparrows and starlings.

Bluebirds are worth saving, not only for the beauty of their plumage and their song, but also because of their direct benefits to humans. For example, bluebirds can contribute to the production of environmentally sustainable wine grapes. As part of a program of integrated pest management, bluebirds can reduce or eliminate the need for insecticides. In recent visits to South Coast vineyards in Massachusetts, I have enjoyed observing these benefits directly!

In his journals, Henry David Thoreau demonstrated the value of prolonged, careful observation as the key to understanding the complex relationships within natural communities.  Similarly, Mr. Benson’s decades of careful observation allows him to understand bluebirds so profoundly that he has been able to design a variety of nesting boxes that are attractive to bluebirds but not to the sparrows or starlings that would occupy homes that would look very similar to most people.

Suggested activities:

1. Read the His Blue Heaven article carefully, and identify key geographic and ecological concepts beyond those mentioned above. Write an essay that describes how this story could compare to efforts to restore species or habitat local to your area.

2. Work with the North American Bluebird Society or similar organization to develop a project that would encourage species recovery on your campus or in your community.

In my own outreach work with K-12 students (mainly at the middle school level), the relationship between geography education and STEM education is increasingly clear. Because geography is both a social science and a physical science, the relationships between geography and STEM are sometimes less than clear.

In a recent letter to Dr. John Holdren, one of President Obama’s top science advisors, a coalition of geography organizations makes a strong case for geography and geospatial education as part of a national STEM-education policy. The Coalition of Geospatial Organizations (COGO) includes both the Association of American Geographers and many organizations with more specific, technical missions, such as the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.

All of the groups agree that the current state of thinking on STEM is too narrow in its exclusion of geography. Specifically, they make the case for geographic education, which they note is missing from the PCAST report Prepare and Inspire: K-12 STEM Education for the Future. They make the following arguments for its inclusion:

• A 2009 White House budget calls for placed-based policies and programs
• A 2006 Department of Labor report identified geospatial technologies as one of twelve New and Emerging Occupations
• In 2010, the Department of Labor identified geography as a Knowledge and Skill Area central to employment involving the geospatial technologies it had previously identified
• The National Science Foundation provided $7 million in funding to geography research projects in 2009-2010
• National Geospatial Technology Center for Excellence is funded in part by NSF for the purpose of improving university-level geography education; strong geography education in the K-12 sector is a prerequisite for success in these efforts
• President Obama has said, “We must educate our children to compete in an age where knowledge is capital, and the marketplace is global.”
• The PCAST report itself warns that methods for teaching STEM disciplines must be developed that allows students to apply what they learn to real-world problems. Geography is an integrative discipline that is well-suited to this critical need.

The case for geographic education is not limited to careers and technology, of course; as I have argued before my own state government’s education officials, geography is an essential foundation for cultural literacy and public diplomacy as well, and are good preparation for a wide range of both STEM and non-STEM careers.

Suggested activities

1. Contact education leaders in your state – perhaps starting with the state’s Geographic Alliance – to learn the current status of geographic education in the state.
2. Review the 18 standards for geography education identified in the Geography for Life project. Which of these are most relevant to the geospatial careers for which the COGO group advocates?
3. Make a list of the geospatial technologies on which you rely – directly or indirectly – each day. How many e-commerce web sites, for example, employ Geographic Information Systems as part of their interface with potential customers?

"Alaska, almost a dozen times as large as Jawa, has a population under three-quarters of a million. Here climates range from Cfc to E, soils are thin and take thousands of years to develop, and the air is arctic. ..." (c) H.J. de Blij

Climate change, climate change, climate change.  It certainly bears repeating, if a refrain leads to awareness.  This seems like the dominant discourse to engendering climate change awareness.  Climate change will have (and is having) wide-reaching consequences, some we can predict and many others we cannot.  And of stories of affected landscapes, the high-elevation and high-latitude environments are the most often mentioned.  The post, Geography Directions: Permafrost, carbon and thermokarsts: the Arctic importance offers a slightly different spin on the hackneyed talk of glacial melt.  Instead of continuing to focus on the changes in quintessential landscapes-under-threat, like this one of Glacier Bay, Alaska, the article discusses carbon storage processes in periglacial landscapes.  By focusing on periglacial carbon storage, the article provides another avenue for understanding the Earth’s Carbon Cycle.  Further, periglacial landscapes are also undergoing transformation; however, these areas are also landscapes of human settlement and activity.  If periglacial, permafrost and thermokarsts aren’t sexy enough, then subsiding lands, sinking buildings, and trucks mired in mud should offer some tantalizing bases for climate change mitigation.

The Arctic covers 5% of the total land mass of the earth and reaches across every longitude: it is important. It is estimated that 1.4 times more carbon is stored in permafrost than is currently circulating in the atmosphere, and there is 1.5 times more carbon in permafrost than is currently being stored in all the earth’s vegetation. William Bowden (2010) outlines this in a Geography Compass article, and explains the relationships between permafrost, thermokarsts and climate change.

Permafrost is soil or rock which remains below 0^oC for at least 2-3 years at a time. When permafrost thaws it loses its internal structure and subsides unevenly, and the resulting formation is called thermokarst. The transition from permafrost to thermokarst has important hydrological, geomorphological, biogeochemical and ecological importance to arctic landscapes. Globally, this transition may also release the stored carbon which, due to microbial processes, may be released as carbon dioxide or methane.

In April, a special edition on climate change was published by the journal, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. It outlined key research questions required to better understand the impact of greenhouse gases on climate change. The arctic was prominently featured, and in particular the concern over permafrost melt and potential methane release. Scientists seem to agree that research is needed to understand the transitional process from permafrost to thermokarsts and the possible implications on the global climate.

By Caitlin Douglas

To view the original article please visit the Geography Directions Blog.

For these reasons, it is surprising how much avian biodiversity can be encouraged on very small patches of land. NPR reporter and bird lover Melissa Block learned this when she invited Bill Thompson, the editor of Bird Watcher’s Digest, to her backyard in Washington, D.C. Although her property measures less than 1/100 of an acre, Thompson helps her to identify ways of attracting a greater variety of birds. His technique relies on a combination of carefully-chosen

As he mentions, outside domestic cats impede efforts to attract birds. On my family’s 0.31 acre in Bridgewater, Massachusetts, our wildlife efforts compete with the well-meaning efforts of a person who maintains feral cats in the adjacent woods. We have overcome the resultant predation (and intimidation) of birds by providing a combination of feed and habitat very similar to what Thompson prescribed.

1. In most parts of the world, the use of metric units means that people can readily make comparisons that are difficult in the United States, where the old English units are still used. For example, 1/100 of a hectare is 100 square meters, whereas 1/100 of an acre is 435.6 square feet. Ten thousand square meters to the hectare and one hundred hectares to the square kilometer; these are quite easy, compared to 43,560 square feet per acre and 640 acres per square mile. For geographers working in the United States, it is worth taking the time to memorize some of the conversions related to area or distance.

2. The National Wildlife Federation offers guidance to people wishing to improve conditions for wildlife on their own property, offering certification for gardens and backyards that provide a combination of water, habitat, and food sources for wildlife. Choose a piece of property — perhaps your own, that of a family member, or part of your school campus. Identify the boundaries of the property and its size, then visit the NWF backyard wildlife page to see whether conditions on the property are favorable for wildlife. Prepare a site map that shows the resources that are present, and write a brief description of how the site compares to the certification standards. If it is suitable for certification — or can be made so — consider applying to NWF for formal certification.

Seasonal rhythms for many students are part of an unobserved, taken for granted backdrop of their lives.  Seasons are rooted more in changing activities and lifestyles, rather than observing the alterations in day length or the sun’s altitude.  As mentioned in the post, Daylight Savings Time: Why it took nearly two weeks for this post, daylight saving time (DST) is one of these seasonal changes that affects us, perhaps more than we can concretely recognize.  Using GeoDiscoveries, like “Earth as viewed from the sun,” allows students to step outside their own cognitive universe and see for themselves the changing position of the Earth relative to the Sun.  Visualizing this annual path helps them to understand the foundations of the Earth system in which we are all a part of.

The creation of DST schemes was centered on saving valued resources.  These resources, like today, were the energy commodities essential to productivity, allowing people to work after dark and indoors.  The National Geographic article sites a book by David Prerau, Seize the Daylight: The Curious and Contentious Story of Daylight Saving Time, that tells the stories of DST.  It was the need for war-time conservation of coal that actually saw DST implemented during World War I, again in World War II, and again during the Oil Embargo of 1973-4.  In 2007, a U.S. energy bill was implemented starting DST earlier and ending it later, adding an extra month to DST.  The same arguments about energy saving were reiterated.  Other benefits were also claimed, like reduced crime and traffic fatalities, and increased productivity, recreation and “smiles.”

Beyond states of emergency, DST has not been mandatory, with U.S. states like Arizona and Hawaii choosing not to observe it.  Such optional geographies of DST provide an unexpected opportunity for studying the cost-benefit of DST schemes.  A study of three different Australian states’ power-use data during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games found that ultimately any power-saving was cancelled out as energy demand in the mornings cancelled out any savings from the evenings.  A U.S. study in Indiana had similar findings, which saw that energy-consumption from not just lighting, but also air conditioning contributed to increased afternoon demand.  The study found that consumers’ electric bills were actually higher during DST, as people used their air conditioners more during the warmer spring and summer evenings.  Yet, the spatial analysis of DST seems to also offer evidence to the contrary.  Another study of the entire U.S., commissioned by the U.S. Department of Energy, shows that at the national scale there were small reductions in overall energy consumption, which still added up to significant energy savings.  The study also found that DST had uneven benefits.  For example, California benefits the most from DST because of its mild weather, not requiring year ‘round climate control appliances.  Northern states also benefit more during DST months relative to Southern states because they do not necessarily need as much air conditioning, which is a major energy consumer.  These studies reveal some of the flaws within such standardized time schemes.

The National Geographic article also describes some of the interesting connections to DST and lifestyles.  As mentioned in the 2007 energy bill, one group argues that the daylight shuffling in DST encourages lifestyles that are more active.  A study mentioned in the article does support that view; during DST people were more likely to include more active outdoor activities, rather than more languid indoor activities.  However, a “chronobiologist” argues that our body clocks never adjust to DST.  A result of that is decreased productivity, increased susceptibility to illness and being frequently tired, all symptoms of “social jet lag.”  He argues that the shift in daylight toward the evening only serves to delay the body clock, affecting sleep schedules and leading to overtiredness.  This overtiredness could also have more serious consequences.  A 2008 Swedish study showed that the risk of heart attack actually increased following the switch to DST.  The study’s author found the most likely explanation for the findings were again related to body clocks and sleep rhythm.

In the end, DST works for some and not for others.  Body clocks or sundials, it is nearly impossible to standardize savings uniformly, whether they are of day light or of resources.  However, to this author, DST is now a fitting seasonal scapegoat for procrastination or listlessness.

Have a look at the video at:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fDDhp4DWgU&feature=related

I can be followed on twitter at: www.twitter.com/ArbogastDPG

Posted by: Alan Arbogast, Michigan State University